human psychology: 10 Fascinating Facts About Personality

Wednesday, December 25, 2013

10 Fascinating Facts About Personality

Personality makes us who we are. It influences nearly every aspect of our lives, from what we choose to do for a living to how we interact with our families to our choices of friends and romantic partners. But what factors influence our personality? Can we change our personalities, or do our overall traits remain constant throughout life?

Learn more about what researchers have learned in these ten fascinating facts about personality.

1. Birth Order Can Influence Your Personality

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You've probably heard of this concept before. First born children are often described as "bossy" or "responsible," while last-born children are sometimes described as "irresponsible" and "impulsive." But how true are these common stereotypes?
For decades, pop psychology books touted the effects of birth order on personality, but hard evidence on the phenomenon remained elusive until recently. A few recent empirical studies have found that such things as birth order and family size may indeed have an impact on personality. One study even found that birth order can influence your choices of friends and romantic partners; first-borns tend to associate with other first-borns, middle-borns with other middle-borns and last-borns with last-borns.

2. Your Personality Is Relatively Stable throughout Life

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In long-term studies of personality, some of the most core parts of personality remain stable throughout life. Three aspects that do tend to change as we age are anxiety levels, friendliness and eagerness for novel experiences.
According to researcher Paul T. Costa Jr., there is no evidence our overall personalities change as we grow older. "What changes as you go through life are your roles and the issues that matter most to you. People may think their personality has changed as they age, but it is their habits that change, their vigor and health, their responsibilities and circumstances - not their basic personality," he suggested in a New York Times article.

3. Personality Traits Are Linked to Certain Illnesses

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In the past, a number of different personality traits have been suspected of contributing to particular illnesses. For example, hostility and aggression were often linked to heart disease. The difficulty was that while some studies would reveal a link, other studies demonstrated no such connection.
Recently, researchers have used a statistical technique known as meta-analysis to reevaluate previous research on the connection between personality and disease. What they discovered were some previously unnoticed connections between neurotic personality traits and five illnesses; headaches, asthma, arthritis, peptic ulcers and heart disease.
Another study suggested that shyness might be linked to a shorter lifespan.

4. Animals Have Distinctive Personalities

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Does it ever seem like your beloved pet has a personality that makes him utterly unique? Animal researchers have found animals from nearly every species of animal (from spiders to birds to elephants) have their own personalities with preferences, behaviors and quirks that persist throughout life.
While some critics suggest that this represents anthropomorphism, or ascribing human traits to animals, animal personality researchers have been able to identify consistent behavioral patterns that can be empirically measured and tested.

5. Current Research Suggests that there are Five Core Personality Traits

In the past, researchers have debated exactly how many personality traits exist. Early researchers such as Allport suggested that there were as many as 4,000 distinct personality traits, while others such as Raymond Cattell proposed that there were 16. Today, many personality researchers support the five-factor theory of personality, which describes five broad personality dimensions that compose human personality:

Extraversion
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Neuroticism
Openness

6. Personality Influences Personal Preferences

Photo by Sanja Gjenero

It may come as no shock to learn that your personality can have a profound effect on your personal preferences, but you just might be surprised by how far reaching these effects may be. From your choice of friends to your taste in music, your unique personality can influence nearly every choice you make in your daily life.
For example, while you might pride yourself on carefully considering the issues before choosing a candidate to support, research suggests that personality may play a strong role in political preferences. One study conducted by researchers at the University of Toronto found that individuals who identified themselves as conservatives were higher in a personality trait called orderliness, while those who self-identified as liberal were higher in empathy.
Researchers suggest that these underlying personality needs to either preserve order or express empathy can have a strong influence on political preferences.

7. People Can Accurately Judge Your Personality Based on Your Facebook Profile

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When you think about people's online identities, you might imagine that most people try to present an idealized version of their real selves. After all, in most online situations you get to pick and choose the information you want to reveal. You get to select the most attractive photos of yourself to post and you can edit and revise your comments before you make them. Surprisingly, one study discovered that Facebook profiles are actually quite good at conveying your real personality.
In the study, researchers looked at the online profiles of 236 U.S. college-aged individuals. The participants also filled out questionnaires designed to measure personality traits including extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism and openness. Observers then rated the personalities of the participants based on the online profiles, and these observations were compared to the results of the personality questionnaires. The researchers found that observers were able to get an accurate read on a person's personality based on their Facebook profile.
"I think that being able to express personality accurately contributes to the popularity of online social networks in two ways," explained psychologist and lead author Sam Gosling. "First, it allows profile owners to let others know who they are and, in doing so, satisfies a basic need to be known by others. Second, it means that profile viewers feel they can trust the information they glean from online social network profiles, building their confidence in the system as a whole."

8. Numerous Factors Can Contribute to Personality Disorders

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An estimated 10 to 15% of adults in the United States experience symptoms of at least one personality disorder. Researchers have identified a number of factors that may contribute to the onset of different personality disorders such as obsessive-compulsive disorder and borderline-personality disorder.
These factors include:

Genetics
Relationships with peers
High sensitivity
Verbal abuse
Childhood trauma.

9. Cardinal Traits Are Rare

Photo by Ferdinand Schmutzer, from the Wikimedia Commons

Psychologist Gordon Allport described cardinal traits as those that dominated an individual's life to the point where that person is known and often identified specifically by that trait. These traits are considered rare, however. In many cases, people become so known for these traits that their very names become synonymous with that type of personality. Consider the origins of these often-used terms: Freudian, Machiavellian, narcissism, Don Juan and Christ-like.
For most people, personality is instead composed of a mixture of central and secondary traits. Central traits are those that make up the core foundation of personality, while secondary traits are those related to preferences, attitudes and situational behaviors.

10. Your Pet May Reveal Information About Your Personality

Photo by TJ Nuckolls

Would you consider yourself more of a "dog person" or a "cat person"? According to one personality study, your answer to this question might actually reveal important information about your personality.
In a study of 4,500 people, researchers asked participants whether they considered themselves to be more dog people or cat people. These individuals also completed a personality survey that measured a number of broad traits including conscientiousness, openness, neuroticism and agreeableness.
The researchers discovered that people who identified themselves as dog people tended to be more extroverted and eager to please others, while those who described themselves as cat people tended to be more introverted and curious.
According to researcher Sam Gosling, a psychologist at the University of Texas-Austin, the results might have important implications in the field of pet therapy. By using personality screenings, therapists might be able to match people in need with animals that are best suited to their personality.
_{References

Angier, N. (2010). Even among animals: Leaders, followers and schmoozers. The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/06/science/06angi.html

Friedman
HS, Booth-Kewley S. The "disease-prone personality": A meta-analytic
view of the construct. American Psychologist. 1987;42:539–555.

Goleman, D. (1987). Personality: Major traits found stable throughout life. The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1987/06/09/science/personality-major-traits-found-stable-through-life.html

Goleman, D. (1988). Study affirms link of personality to illness. The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DEEDC1F3EF93AA25752C0A96E948260

Gosling,
S. D., Sandy, C. J., & Potter, J. (2010). Personalities of
self-identified "dog people" and "cat people." Anthrozoös, 23, 213-222.

Hartshorne, J. K. (2010). How birth order affects your personality. Scientific American. http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=ruled-by-birth-order

Huff, C. (2004). When personality goes awry. Monitor on Psychology. http://apa.org/monitor/mar04/awry.aspx

Svoboda, E. (2004). Only the shy die young. Discover Magazine. http://discovermagazine.com/2004/apr/only-the-shy-die-young/

University
of Toronto (2010, June 10). Personality predicts political preferences.
ScienceDaily. http://www.sciencedaily.com¬
/releases/2010/06/100609111312.htm

University of Texas at Austin
(2009, December 1). Facebook profiles capture true personality,
according to new psychology research. ScienceDaily.
http://www.sciencedaily.com¬ /releases/2009/12/091201111154.htm}

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10 Psychological Research Studies to Help You Tap Into Human Behavior and Increase Conversions

n order to prosper in the world of online sales and conversions, marketers must understand the basic principles of human psychology. Not confined to being "niche specific", understanding how our brains work can go a long way to helping us understand how we can successfully (and ethically) move people towards saying 'Yes'. Research into social and consumer psychology has come a long way, and there are a lot of lessons to be learned from these studies that smart marketers can apply right away. Below I've outlined 10 fascinating psychological research studies that will help you learn how people "tick", as well as how to apply them to increase conversions. 1.) Asking A Little Goes A Long Way... For Conversions Although at first glance it may appear to be counter-productive, one excellent way to find insights that can increase conversions is to stop focusing on why people say "yes", and zoom in on what makes they say 'no'. One research study focused on testing the change in charitable donations to the American Cancer Society by adjusting how requests were made in person (door-to-door). The researchers tested between two different request lines: "Would you be willing to help by giving a donation?" "Would you be willing to help by giving a donation? Even a penny will help." A small, subtle change; one might expect a difference, but not a statistically significant one. Surprisingly though, researchers found that those who were asked the second line were twice as likely to donate to the charity, jumping up to nearly 50% from the 28% response seen from the first line. The research concluded that people may be hesitant to take action when parameters are not set, in this case, they may have become paralyzed when not giving an "acceptable" minimal amount, and therefore chose not to act at all. One might think that this request would result in donations of a smaller amount overall, given that people were encouraged to donate "even a penny". Shockingly, researchers found that there was no difference in the average donation made per contributor, meaning that the second line did not cause people to donate in a lower amount overall. Lesson learned: Defining ideal parameters (or minimums) can help people break through "action paralysis". 2.) Personalization Makes People Satisfied Customers Waiters were able to successfully increase their tips by over 23% versus a control by changing a single aspect of their service. Which aspect do you think it was? A bigger smile? A "perkier" introduction? Surprise of the month: it was mints that allowed for such big tip increases. In a research study published in the Journal for Applied Psychology, researchers tested the conspicuous power of mints to effect the amount of tips that customers left, all other aspects of their service remaining the same. In the study, three variations were conducted: The first group included waiters/waitresses giving a single mint with the check, and also no mention of the mint itself. This increased tips by around 3% against the control group. The second group changed things up by having the servers bring out two mints by hand (separate from the check). In addition, they mentioned them to the table (ie, "Would anyone like some mints?"). This saw tips increase by ~14% against the control group. The last group had waiters bring out the check first along with a pair of mints. A short time afterward, the waiter came back with another set of mints, and let customers know that they had brought out more mints, in case they wanted another. This last group saw the increase of 23% mentioned above. What does this tell us about consumer behavior? That they just loooooove mints? No! Researchers concluded that it was the personalization aspect that won over patrons hearts (and their wallets). People enjoyed the follow up much more so than the mints they received: the fact that the waiter came back to see if anyone needed more mints left a positive impression after a critical marketing moment, the initial time after the sale. The greatest part about this study is that it reveals that nearly anything can be used as a follow up to generate this effect: free training for your product or service, a follow-up guide, an additional module that's not mentioned on the sales page, just follow up post purchase with a small gift and consumers will love you for it. Lesson learned: Personal follow-ups (especially with small gifts) go a long way to creating happy customers. 3.) Head Starts Lead to "First Place" Loyalty Have you ever wondered what makes online gaming so addictive? Gamers are probably already subliminally aware of a few aspects, the acquisition of "points" (in the form of new levels, upgrades, even new experiences) being one of the most influential ones. In fact, it's been argued that having a "gamer" style personality might make you a good SEO consultant! As for conversions, point systems have long been used to increase customer loyalty, but are they as optimized as they could be? Consumer researchers Joseph Nunes and Xaiver Dreze set out to answer this very question, and their results were surprising. In the now somewhat infamous carwash study, Nunes & Dreze tested the effect of "loyalty cards" by handing out sets of cards (with stamps) that allowed users to get a free car wash after eight or 10 previous washes. The thing was, they handed out two different types of cards to participants (those sneaky psychologists): One card required the minimal eight stamps to get the free car wash, but had no stamps "pre-checked" (all of the stamps were blank) The second card required 10 minimal purchases, but two of the stamps were already checked off (therefore, in reality, eight washes were still needed to get the free wash) This seemingly similar stamp system created some surprising results. The researchers found that only 19% of those with the first card came back enough times to get their free car wash, whereas 34% of those with the second card made it to the free wash (labeled the "head start" group). That means that by giving folks a 'boost' in their loyalty program (even though comparatively, both cards were the same), researchers were able to nearly double the loyalty of the customers using card two. The results seem clear: People are more likely to remain with (and complete) loyalty programs if you initially offer them some evidence that they've already made progress towards completing their next goal (throw in a few "bonus points" and the inner-gamer in us all will want to acquire more). Lesson learned: Loyalty programs are more effective when people can see "instant" progress. This progress makes them more likely to stick with it until completion. 4.) Admitting Your Faults Works When You Highlight Strengths Can it ever be good to admit when you come up short? According to research from social psychologist Fiona Lee, it can. In a study to measure the effect of admitting to faults, Lee and colleagues conducted a test that had participants reading one of two fictitious company reports. Both reports listed reasons why the company had done so “poorly” the past year (remembering that these were fake). The first report had the company listing strategic decisions as the main reason for poor performance. The second report had the company listing exterior events as the main reason for poor performance (economic downturn and increased competition). The results? Test subjects viewed the first company far more favorably than the second. Lee also found (after examining hundreds of these types of statements, over 14 real companies) that companies that admitted to faults also had higher stock prices the following year. Why? Lee's conclusion was that admittance to shortcomings in things like strategy showcased that the company was actually in control, despite their faults. Blaming outside occurrences that couldn't be controlled (even if true) often had the skeptics in the study viewing companies as not having the ability to fix the problem, but also as false or flaky. Lesson learned: When mistakes can honestly be attributed to strategy or an oversight, admitting to them can lead to more trust if we define exactly what changes are going to be made to fix them. 5.) Urgent Calls-to-Action Only Work When a Solution is Given Creating copy and sales pitches that come off as "urgent" is one of the oldest marketing tricks in the book. Additionally, the principle of "scarcity" is deemed to be one of the 6 pillars of influence as mentioned by Robert Cialdini. I have research that suggests, however, that these messages that invoke a sense of urgency are essentially useless unless there are very specific instructions given as a follow up. How so? In a study by Howard Leventhal, participants were tested to see what their reaction (and follow up percentage) would be when given an urgent, fearful message. The message involved the disastrous effects of the tetanus disease: each participant was given a pamphlet that spared no detail of the results tetanus can have on the body. As with any good psych study, situations were different for the control and experimental group: The control group received a pamphlet with just the information on the dangers of tetanus. The experimental group received a similar pamphlet, but theirs also included information on where and how to schedule an appointment to get vaccinated. The results? Participants who received the second pamphlet (with follow-up info) were much more likely to take action on getting vaccinated, and just as interesting, were more receptive to processing the information on the dangers of tetanus. This made them not only more engaged, but more likely to "make moves" as well. The thing is, the info provided in the second packet wasn't all that comprehensive. This lead to Leventhal concluding that people are susceptible to blocking out information that evokes a sense of urgency if they aren't given instructions on how to specifically deal with it. Meaning, people were apt to persuade themselves that, "I don't need to worry, this won't affect me," when given information they didn't know how to act on. Furthermore, people with the follow up info felt better prepared and were therefore much less likely to "put it aside" and out of their heads. Lesson learned: Evoking a sense of urgency works, but without information on how to act, information paralysis can begin and people will block out the intended message. 6.) Don't Listen to People: They Like Being Labeled! Most people (especially true in the Western world, particularly among Americans) would say that they enjoy being an "individual", and don't like being labeled. Yet, research has found, that when nudging people to get involved, most people respond favorably to being labeled. "It's not just a phase mom!" This isn't a tactic to persuade teenagers either, in fact, the research study in question analyzed the voting patterns of adults to see if labeling effected their overall turnout. Setting the stage: After being casually interviewed about their own personal voting patterns, half of the participants were told that they were likely to vote since they had been deemed by the researcher to be more politically active, and the other half weren't told anything. The catch: Participants who were told that they were more likely to vote were chosen randomly, meaning that they weren't actually more likely to vote, they were just labeled as such. The result: Those in the group "labeled" as more likely to vote... ended up voting far more often! In fact, on election day, that group had a 15% higher total turnout than the control group, despite the fact that they were selected at random. It seems that when we are labeled as being a part of a particular sect, our brain seeks to maintain this consistency (even if it didn't exist before!) and therefore causes us to act like those we've been labeled as in order to maintain a consistent personality. In a nutshell: we like being consistent, and when we're told by someone that we are "a part of ____ group", we are more likely to respond as such. For conversions, this means you need to evoke a similarity between your future customers and your current customers: ie, "Join over 215,000 of your fellow SEO addicts enthusiasts who get our Moz Top 10 newsletter!" (Rand, my bill is in the mail ;)). Get people to imagine themselves in a favorable group (people who vote are viewed more favorably by most) and they will take actions to remain a part of that group. Apparently, it's not always just a phase! Lesson learned: People will take action in order to maintain a consistent personality when they are "labeled". 7.) "Instant" Gratification Makes People Move If there is one thing our brain loves, it's getting stimulation immediately. In fact, the brain loves instant gratification so much, there has been numerous research on determining the results of some people's inability to control against this force, with particular interest in how deferring gratification can help us in achieving success in life. Powerful stuff! Fortunately, we're talking about the type of instant rewards that are not only good for our customers, but also good for our conversions. When deciding whether or not to “commit” to a purchase, customers (or in the case of building an email list, subscribers) are heavily influence by how fast they can increase their “utility”, or how fast they can receive gratification. In fact, several Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) studies have shown that our frontal cortex is activated when we think about “waiting” for something. Conversely, our mid-brain gets excited when we think about getting something right away. You can tap into this knowledge by invoking something instant, even if you aren't selling something digital! (If you are selling something digital, this becomes even easier) Structure your copy to include words like “instant”, “immediately”, or even just “fast” (for non-digital products) to engage that mid-brain activity that gets us so excited. If you aren't selling something, using a lead generation freebie (such as a free trial) is a great way to build this psychological aspect right into your site's value proposition and design. The key is to present these instant solutions as a “fix” to a pain point, as gratification is hastily chased when our mind seeks to resolve an unfavorable problem. Lesson learned: People respond favorably to "instant gratification" and are more likely to take action when fast rewards are on the horizon. 8.) Chest Pounding About Low Prices Can Decrease Conversions "The lowest prices in town!" Works for some businesses, can be absolutely disastrous for others. In a recent Stanford research study, results concluded that "comparative pricing" isn't always as reliable as marketers think it is. In fact, asking consumers to internalize their price comparisons can result in them taking the opposite action that you want: they'll buy your competitor's product! The study goes into depth about the importance of 'implicit' and 'explicit' comparisons when it comes to price: Implicit comparisons occur when a customer takes the initiative to compare two or more products. Conversely, explicit comparisons are those that are specifically stated or brought up by the marketer or advertiser. To test the results of both, Simonson & Dholakia set up two separate trials. The first trial involved selling CDs on eBay. Specifically, the researches listed albums for sale like Pink Floyd's 'The Wall' (I approve!), and then "framed" the listings in two very distinct ways. The initial listing was always started at $1.99, and it was "flanked" (surrounded by similar listings) by the same album, but the price was set at $0.99 instead. Similarly, the second trial had the $1.99 album "flanked" by two identical listings, but this time the price was set at $6.99. Essentially: (flank) $0.99 album <---> $1.99 album <---> $0.99 album (flank) and... (flank) $6.99 album <---> $1.99 album <---> $6.99 album (flank) The results? They were conclusive: The CDs flanked with the more expensive options ($6.99) consistently ended up fetching higher prices than the CDs next to the $0.99 offerings. “We didn’t tell people to make a comparison; they did it on their own,” said Simonson. “And when people make these kinds of comparisons on their own, they are very influential.” In the follow up study, researchers outright asked the customers to compare the $1.99 offering with the other two. Buyers, perhaps surprisingly, became increasingly more risk adverse and more cautious of the offerings and in their likelihood to purchase any CDs: “The mere fact that we had asked them to make a comparison caused them to fear that they were being tricked in some way,” said Simonson. The findings show that customers often frame prices in their own minds in relation to the prices of adjacent (or similar) products, meaning it's not always optimal to go "bottom dollar". Additionally, if you ask explicitly ask customers to compare products, they may react unfavorably to your predictions: as this study showed, it can cause them to take less action overall rather than more. Lesson learned: Asking customers to compare price on a product cannot always have the intended effect, instead, strategies that evoke an "internal" comparison could be more effective. Instead of focusing on price, perhaps you should... 9.) Sell Customers on Time Benefits, Not Money Why does a beer company like Miller have a slogan like: "It's Miller time!" They sell inexpensive beer, so isn't it better to focus on this price advantage? According to researcher Jennifer Aaker, that would be a terrible choice for a company selling cheap beer. “Because a person’s experience with a product tends to foster feelings of personal connection with it, referring to time typically leads to more favorable attitudes—and to more purchases.” It's tough to sell beer based purely on price, the competition is massive and the price differences are largely understood (some people don't mind paying more for "premium" beer, it's an accepted fact that they have to in order to get quality). How about the memories tied to your favorite inexpensive beer though? The BBQs, the parties as a college kid, they way a few drinks makes you feel: all memories tied to beer, and all memories Miller hopes to rekindle with their focus on "time enjoyed" rather than "money saved". Jenn Aaker's study seems to back up this assertion: the experiment set up a simple lemonade stand and used three different signs and measure their impact. The three signs read as follows: “Spend a little time and enjoy C&D’s lemonade” (time) “Spend a little money and enjoy C&D’s lemonade” (money) “Enjoy C&D’s lemonade” (neutral) Aaker and her fellow researchers also set the stand up with two six-year-old operators, so it would appear legitimate (I don't know about you, but that's dang adorable!) Even with this simple lemonade experiment, the results were crystal clear: The sign stressing time attracted twice as many people, many of whom were willing to pay twice as much. Wow! In addition to this, another study was set up to test how people's internal valuation of things they already owned were affected by recalling time or money. To do so, researchers asked college kids about their iPods, specifically one of two questions: “How much money have you spent on your iPod?” “How much time have you spent on your iPod?" Care to guess the outcome? Students asked about how much time they spent on their iPod were far more favorable in how they later evaluated the enjoyment they got out of their iPod (despite being randomly selected). The researchers pinpointed what they believed to be the underlying cause of these results: One explanation is that our relationship with time is much more personal than our relationship with money. “Ultimately, time is a more scarce resource—once it’s gone, it’s gone—and therefore more meaningful to us,” says Mogilner. “How we spend our time says so much more about who we are than does how we spend our money.” So, sell customers on time and enjoyment from a purchase, because unless you're running a luxury brand like Ferrari (where customers do respond favorably to recalling price), you could be evoking less than positive reactions. Lesson learned: People often value their time more than money, emphasis on time spent or time saved can be a better value proposition than the money they might save. 10.) If You Give Too Much, You'll Get Less in Return If people don’t know where to go, they will always find an exit. -Rafal Tomal, Lead Designer of Copyblogger Media The last study I'd like to discuss with you directly relates to increasing the amount of action that people will take. If it can be summed up in a single phrase, the takeaway is this: choice overload kills conversions. In The Art of Choosing, Sheena Iyengar, demonstrates perfectly the adverse effect that too many options has on conversions in a groundbreaking study involving... jam. In her research, she conducted a study on the amount of flavors of jam that were available for participants to “taste-test” in two different displays. Her results give an amazing example on the effect of choice overload on consumers. During multiple Saturday afternoons, Sheena (who is a professor at Columbia University) set up two different displays at an up-scale grocery market, alternating between the amounts of jam that she had on display. On one Saturday, she would offer 24 flavors, and on the other, she offered only six flavors. On which day do you think more people purchased the jam? You might be surprised, but it was the day with only six flavors. Why? When people are overloaded by choices, social psychologists are aware that they will often resort to their safety choice of nothing, and then move along to something else. And that is exactly what happened in this study. The findings also point out an eminent danger: Despite the fact that the 6 flavor test had a higher percentage of people purchasing the jam, the 24 flavor variety had more people taste-testing the jam. Choice is demotivating only for actual purchases, because although the 24 flavor set up had 60% of people stop by to try the jam on display (compared to 40% for the six flavor display), the six flavor display had 30% of people make a purchase, compared to ONLY 3% in the 24 jam display. Marketers must be careful when offering too many options to customers, and must be especially careful of tracking the right metrics when changing up their offering amounts. Lesson learned: People are more inclined to take action when their choices offer variety but aren't overwhelming. Over To You What did you think about the 10 studies mentioned above? Any one in particular pique your interest? Let me know in the comments below, and thanks for reading!

human psychology