7 Ways to Be More Fearless

Being fearless doesn’t necessarily mean jumping out of airplanes or traveling to the world’s most dangerous regions (although it certainly can if you want).  For some people, cultivating a sense of fearlessness is more about gathering the courage to ask for a major promotion or to make a cross-country move for the chance at a better life.

No matter what specific end result you’re working towards, the following tips should help you to minimize fear and embrace courage in your life:

Tip #1 – Identify your fears

The first step towards becoming more fearless is to simply identify what it is you’re afraid of.  If you’ve been fighting a vague sense of anxiety or unease, it’s a vital part of the fear-busting process!

However, while some fears are fairly straightforward (for example, the fear of spiders or snakes), lifestyle fears tend to be more complex.  If, as an example, you’re afraid of tornadoes, be aware that it’s not just the weather phenomenon that scares you – it’s also the threat of death, devastation and loss that these types of systems can bring about.

By taking the time to really get to the root of what scares you, you’ll be able to process your fears using the following tips in order to reduce the impact they have on your life.

Tip #2 – Explore worst case and more likely scenarios

Once you know what it is you’re afraid of, take the time to map out the worst case scenarios that could result.  Say you want to ask for a raise, but are afraid of being rejected.  In this example, the worst case scenario would be your boss telling you to pack your bags and leave.  But it’s much more likely that your request will either be approved or turned down politely.

Use these more likely scenarios to prevent your mind from running away with the absolute worst possible outcome in a given situation.

Tip #3 – Pick a relaxation technique

People deal with stress in different ways.  Having a relaxation technique that suits your personality is a vital part of managing fear in your life.

For example, to help control your fears, you could try:

• Engaging in meditation
• Getting an intense workout
• Writing in a journal
• Singing along with loud music
• Attending religious services

There’s no right or wrong way to relax, so listen to your own mind when it comes to finding activities that’ll take the edge off your fear.

Tip #4 – Avoid anticipatory fear

Being scared of an event or action is one thing.  But it’s also common for people to build up certain scenarios in their own minds to the point where the fear of anticipation is worse than the fear of the event itself!

Don’t do this to yourself.  If you find yourself feeling fearful about a future event (or something that you aren’t sure will even happen), use the relaxation techniques described above to calm yourself down.  There’s no reason to make your fear worse by psyching yourself up unnecessarily.

Tip #5 – Tell somebody your fears

Fear tends to be a very personal thing, which distorts our perspective and magnifies our fears.  If, for example, you’re afraid of being rejected by a potential date, you might revisit the fear over and over again in your mind – until you’re certain that you’ll never get a date again.

It might be scary to think about telling a friend or family member about the things you fear, but often, getting this type of outsider input can help you to see your fears from a different angle.  You’ll immediately feel less alone after confiding in another person, and you may find yourself coming away from the exchange with advice and recommendations from others who have dealt with the same fears.

Tip #6 – See a therapist

We all face fears and – nine times out of ten – these fears are manageable.  However, in some cases, fear grows out of control, becoming something that actively prevents people from living full, engaging lives.

If you find yourself in this situation, consider seeing a therapist who specializes in fear and anxiety management.  There’s nothing shameful about seeking professional help, and you might be surprised by how much of a difference this type of support can make in your life.

Tip #7 – Confront your fears head on

Finally, once you’ve worked through all of the tips listed above, there’s nothing else to do but to confront your fears head on.

On a regular basis, try to do things that scare you.  Don’t be stupid or take unnecessarily dangerous risks, but do make it an effort to counteract fear with action.  If you’re afraid of romantic rejection, ask the hottest person in the bar out on a date.  If you’re scared about asking for a promotion at work, set a deadline for yourself and commit to talking to your boss on a particular day.

We all have fears, but there’s no reason to let them control your life.  Adopt the above tips in your own life and start being more fearless today!

10 Facts About Memory

 Our memory helps make us who we are. From fondly recollecting childhood events to remembering where we left our keys, memory plays a vital role in every aspect of our lives. It provides us with a sense of self and makes up our continual experience of life.
It's easy to think of memory as a mental filing cabinet, storing away bits of information until we need them. In reality, it is a remarkably complex process that involves numerous parts of the brain. Memories can be vivid and long-lasting, but they are also susceptible to inaccuracies and forgetting.
Continue reading to learn more about some of the most interesting aspects of human memory.

• The Hippocampus Plays an Important Role In Memory

The hippocampus is a horse-shoe shaped area of the brain that plays an important role in consolidating information from short-term memory into long-term memory. It is part of the limbic system, a system associated with emotions and long-term memories. The hippocampus is involved in such complex processes as forming, organizing, and storing memories.
Because both sides of the brain are symmetrical, the hippocampus can be found in both hemispheres. If one side of the hippocampus is damaged or destroyed, memory function will remain nearly normal as long as the other side is undamaged.
Damage to both sides of the hippocampus can impede the ability to form new memories, known as anterograde amnesia.
Functioning of the hippocampus can also decline with age. By the time people reach their 80s, they may have lost as much as 20 percent of the nerve connections in the hippocampus. While not all older adults exhibit this neuron loss, those who do show decreased performance on memory tests.

• Most Short-Term Memories Are Quickly Forgotten

The total capacity of short-term memory is fairly limited. Experts believe that you can hold approximately seven items in short-term memory for about 20 to 30 seconds. This capacity can be stretched somewhat by using memory strategies such as chunking, which involves grouping related information into smaller "chunks."
In a famous paper published in 1956, psychologist George Miller suggested that the capacity of short-term memory for storing a list of items was somewhere between five and nine. Today, many memory experts believe that the true capacity of short-term memory is probably closer to the number four.
See this in action for yourself by trying out this short-term memory experiment. Spend two minutes memorizing a random list of words, then get a blank piece of paper and try to write down as many of the words that you can remember.

• Being Tested On Information Actually Helps You Remember It Better

While it may seem like studying and rehearsing information is the best way to ensure that you will remember it, researchers have found that being tested on information is actually one of the best ways to improve recall.
One experiment found that students who studied and were then tested had better long-term recall of the materials, even on information that was not covered by the tests. Students who had extra time to study but were not tested had significantly lower recall of the materials.

• You Can Learn to Improve Your Memory

Do you ever feel like you are constantly forgetting things or misplacing objects that you use every day? Have you ever found yourself walking into a room only to realize that you can't remember why you went in there in the first place? While it might seem like you are doomed to simply tolerate these daily annoyances, researchers have found that you can learn how to improve your memory.
A 2005 cover story in the Monitor on Psychology summarized research revealing a number of useful strategies to deal with mild memory loss. These techniques include:

• Utilizing technology to keep track of information. Tools such as hand-held mobile devices and online reminder calendars can help people keep track of appointments and other important dates. Using a reminder app on your phone can be a handy way to stay on top of important dates and events.


• Taking a "mental picture" can help. Systematically trying to make a mental note of things you often forget (such as where you left your car keys) can help you remember things better. The next time you set your keys down somewhere, take a moment to mentally note where you left them as well as the other objects that were nearby. If you think to yourself "I left my keys by my wallet on the desk," you'll probably find it easier to recall the information later.


• Use memorization techniques. Rehearsing information, employing mnemonics, and other memorization strategies are perhaps the best ways to overcome minor memory problems. By learning how to use these strategies effectively, you can sidestep the faulty areas of your memory and train your brain to function in new ways.

• There Are Four Major Reasons Why You Forget Things

 

In order to combat forgetfulness, it is important to understand some of the major reasons why we forget things. Elizabeth Loftus, one of the world's most renowned experts on human memory, has identified four major reasons why forgetting occurs. One of the most common explanations is a simple failure to retrieve the information from memory. This often occurs when memories are rarely accessed, causing them to decay over time.
Another common cause of forgetting is interference, which occurs when some memories compete with other memories. For example, imagine that a woman just started a new school year as an elementary school teacher. She spends some time learning the names of each of her students, but over the course of the year she finds herself constantly calling one particular girl by the wrong name. Why? Because the girl's older sister was in the same class the year before, and the two look remarkably similar. It is the memory of the older sister that makes it so difficult to recall the younger student's name.
Other causes of forgetting include failing to store the information in memory in the first place, or even intentionally trying to forget things associated with a troubling or traumatic event.

• Depictions of Amnesia in Movies Are Usually Inaccurate.

 

Amnesia is a common plot device in the movies, but these depictions are often wildly inaccurate. For example, how often have you seen a fictional character lose their memory due to a bump on the head only to have their memories magically restored after suffering a second knock to the skull?
There are two different types of amnesia:

• Anterograde amnesia: Involves the loss of the ability to form new memories.


• Retrograde amnesia: Involves losing the ability to recollect past memories, although the ability to create new memories may remain intact.

While most movie depictions of amnesia involve retrograde amnesia, anterograde amnesia is actually far more common. The most famous case of anterograde amnesia was a patient known in the literature as H.M. In 1953, he had brain surgery to help stop the seizures caused by his severe epilepsy. The surgery involved the removal of both hippocampi, the regions of the brain strongly associated with memory. As a result, H.M. was no longer able to form any new long-term memories.
Popular movies and television programs tend to depict such memory loss as fairly common, but true cases of complete amnesia about one's past and identity are actually quite rare.
Some of the most common causes of amnesia include:

• Trauma: A physical trauma, such as a car accident, can cause the victim to lose specific memories of the event itself. Emotional trauma, such as being a victim of childhood sexual abuse, can cause the individual to lose memories of specific situations.


• Drugs: Certain medications can be used to cause temporary amnesia, particularly during medical procedures. Once the drugs wear off, the individual's memory returns to normal functioning.

Films Containing Depictions of Amnesia

• Robocop (1987)
• Regarding Henry (1991)
• The English Patient (1996)
• Memento (2001)
• The Bourne Identity
• 50 First Dates (2004)
• Finding Nemo (2003)

The science blog Neurophilosophy points out two fairly recent films that contain fairly accurate depictions of amnesia: Memento and Finding Nemo.

• Scent Can Be a Powerful Memory Trigger.

Have you ever noticed that a particular scent can bring forth a rush of vivid memories? The smell of cookies baking might remind you of spending time at your grandmother's house when you were a small child. The scent of a particular perfume might remind you of a romantic partner with whom your relationship ended on a sour note.
Why does smell seem to act as such a powerful memory trigger?
First, the olfactory nerve is located very close to the amygdala, the area of the brain that is connected to the experience of emotion as well as emotional memory. In addition, the olfactory nerve is very close to the hippocampus, which is associated with memory as you learned earlier in this article.
The actual ability to smell is highly linked to memory. Research has shown that when areas of the brain connected to memory are damaged, the ability to identify smells is actually impaired. In order to identify a scent, you must remember when you have smelled it before and then connect it to visual information that occurred at the same time. According to some research, studying information in the presence of an odor actually increases the vividness and intensity of that remembered information when you smell that odor again.

• New Brain Connections Are Created Every Time You Form a Memory.

Researchers have long believed that changes in brain neurons are associated with the formation of memories. Today, most experts believe that memory creation is associated with the strengthening of existing connections or the growth of new connections between neurons.
The connections between nerve cells are known as synapses, and they allow information carried in the form of nerve impulses to travel from one neuron to the next. In the human brain, there are trillions of synapses forming a complex and flexible network that allows us to feel, behave, and think. It is the changes in the synaptic connections in areas of the brain such as the cerebral cortex and hippocampus that is associated with the learning and retention of new information.
In one study conducted at the New York School of Medicine, researchers were able to observe synapse formation in the brains of genetically engineered mice. What they discovered was that in young mice, the tiny protrusions that sometimes develop into longer spines on the receiving end of neurons grew at a rapid rate. This growth rate coincided with the rapid development of the visual cortex. While a large number of these tiny protrusions eventually faded with age, many did continue their formation into fully-fledged spines.
Lead researcher Wen-Biao Gan explained in an interview with the science website WhyFiles.org, "Our idea was that you actually don't need to make many new synapses and get rid of old ones when you learn, memorize. You just need to modify the strength of the preexisting synapses for short-term learning and memory. However, it's likely that few synapses are made or eliminated to achieve long-term memory."
Clearly, maintaining a healthy brain and synapses is critical. Deterioration of synapses due to diseases or neurotoxins is associated with cognitive problems, memory loss, changes in mood, and other alterations in brain function.
So what can you do to strengthen your synapses?

• Avoid stress: Research has found that extended exposure to stress can actually interfere with neurotransmitter function. Other studies have found that stress shrinks neurons in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus.


• Avoid drugs, alcohol, and other neurotoxins: Drug use and excessive alcohol consumption have been linked to synaptic deterioration. Exposure to dangerous chemicals such as heavy metals and pesticides can also cause synaptic loss.


• Get Plenty of Exercise: Regular physical activity helps improve oxygenation of the brain, which is vital for synaptic formation and growth.


• Stimulate your brain: You've probably heard the old adage "Use it or lose it." Well, it turns out there's a lot of truth to that when it comes to memory. Researchers have found that elderly adults who engage in mentally stimulating activities are less likely to develop dementia and people with higher educational statuses tend to have more synaptic connections in the brain.

• A Good Night's Sleep May Improve Your Memory.

 You have probably heard about many of the reasons to get a good night's sleep. Since the 1960s, researchers have noted the important connection between sleep and memory. In one classic experiment conducted in 1994, researchers found that depriving participants of sleep impaired their ability to improve performance on a line identification task.
In addition to aiding in memory, sleep also plays and essential role in learning new information. In one study, researchers found that depriving students of sleep after learning a new skill significantly decreased memory of that skill up to three days later.
Researchers have found, however, that sleep's influence on procedural memory is much stronger than it is for declarative memory. Procedural memories are those that involve motor and perceptual skills, while declarative memories are those that involve the memorization of facts.
"If you're going to be tested on 72 irregular French verbs tomorrow, you might as well stay up late and cram," explained Robert Stickgold, a psychiatry professor at Harvard Medical School, in an article published in the APA's Monitor on Psychology. "But if they're going to throw a curveball at you and ask you to explain the differences between the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution, you're better off having gotten some sleep."

• Memory Failure in Old-Age Might Not Be Inevitable.

While Alzheimer's disease and other age-related memory problems affect many older adults, the loss of memory during old-age might not inevitable. Certain abilities do tend to decline with age, but researchers have found that individuals in their 70s often perform just as well on many cognitive tests as do those in their 20s. Some types of memory even increase with age.
While researchers are still working to understand why exactly some elderly adults manage to maintain an excellent memory while other struggle, a few factors have been implicated so far. First, many experts believe that there is a genetic component to memory retention during old age. Secondly, lifestyle choices are also believed to play an important role.
"I think it's a nature-nurture interaction, in large part," Dr. Bruce S. McEwen, a professor at Rockefeller University in New York, explained to The New York Times. "'A genetic vulnerability increases the likelihood that experience will have an effect."
So what are some steps you can take to stave of the negative effects of aging?
According to one decade-long study, having a strong sense of self-efficacy has been associated with maintaining good memory abilities during old age. Self-efficacy refers to the sense of control that people have over their own lives and destiny. This strong sense of self-efficacy has also been linked to lowered stress levels. As mentioned previously, high levels of chronic stress have been connected to deterioration in the memory centers of the brain.
While there is no simple "quick fix" for ensuring that your memory stays intact as you age, researchers believe that avoiding stress, leading an active lifestyle, and remaining mentally engaged are important ways to decrease your risk of memory loss.
_{References
Adelson, R. (2005). Mending memory. Monitor on Psychology. APA. http://apa.org/monitor/sep05/mending.aspx
Chan, J.C., McDermott, K.B., & Roediger, H.L. (2007). Retrieval-induced facilitation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 135(4), 553-571.
Carroll, L. (2000). Is memory loss inevitable? Maybe not. The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2000/02/01/health/is-memory-loss-inevitable-maybe-not.html?src=pm
Di Gennaro, G., Grammaldo, L.G., Quarato, P.P., Esposito, V., Mascia, A., Sparano A, Meldolesi, G.N., Picardi, A. (2006). Severe amnesia following bilateral medial temporal lobe damage occurring on two distinct occasions. Neurological Sciences, 27(2), 129–33.
Herz R.S. & Engen T.1996. Odor memory: review and analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review 3, 300-313.
Jacob, T. Olfaction: A tutorial on the sense of smell. http://www.cf.ac.uk/biosi/staffinfo/jacob/
Toberen, A. (2003). Learning: It's a memory thing. WhyFiles.org. http://whyfiles.org/184make_memory/index.html
Miller, G. A. (1956), The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information, Psychological Review 63 (2): 343–355
Mohs, Richard C. (2007). How human memory works. HowStuffWorks.com. http://health.howstuffworks.com/human-body/systems/nervous-system/human-memory.htm
Monnell Center. Advancing discovery in taste and smell. http://www.monell.org/
Most people with amnesia forget all details of their earlier lives. (2010). Excerpted from 50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology: Shattering Widespread Misconceptions about Human Behavior by Scott O. Lilienfeld, Steven Jay Lynn, John Ruscio, and Barry L. Beyerstein. http://www.psychologicalscience.org/media/myths/myth_14.cfm
Want to improve memory? Strengthen your synapses. Here's how. Medical News Today. http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/60455.php
Winerman, L. (2006). Let's sleep on it: A good night's sleep may be the key to effective learning, says recent research. Monitor on Psychology. http://www.apa.org/monitor/jan06/onit.aspx.}

Freud

 Freud

 The Psychoanalytic Stream of Psychology
Freud’s Legacy to "Christian Psychology"
(Warning: This Stream is Polluted)

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In contrast to the pure, cleansing, healing, and life-giving waters of the Word of God, the world offers the polluted streams of psychotherapy. One of those streams, in which many Christians continue to dip, is psychoanalysis.
Psychoanalysis was invented by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Though he has been dead for many years, the deadly poison of his bizarre theories has infected nearly every system of psychological counseling. Moreover, Freudian concepts and terms have so permeated our society that they are generally treated as facts about human nature.
For instance, numerous people refer to the id, ego, and superego as if these entities truly exist, as if they are well-defined compartments of the personality. They do not realize that Freudian concepts and terms were concocted in Freud’s own mind. But, that’s the way most psychological systems are formed. They are an attempt to define and explain the inner workings of all persons, but the psychological theorist ends up defining and explaining himself according to his own subjectivity.
That such a system for understanding mankind is flawed should be evident from the ever-increasing number of psychological theories that often contradict each other. Moreover, for the Christian, any such system should be seen as flawed because of the deceitfulness of the heart ("The heart is deceitful above all things, and desperately wicked: who can know it?" Jeremiah 17:9). Because of the noetic effects of the fall, man’s view of himself will be flawed. Thus each person who creates a psychological theory to explain the human condition will have at best a flawed view of himself. But, when people attempt to explain human nature in a universal manner, they fail even more miserably unless they are guided by the Holy Spirit and find their understanding in Scripture.
Freud did not do that. In fact, Freud was adamantly opposed to Christianity. Freud taught that religious doctrines are all illusions and that religion is "the universal obsessional neurosis of humanity."
He viewed religion as the source of mental problems and thus formed all of his notions from a godless position. Nevertheless, Freud’s views influenced our culture to the degree that many Christians began to doubt the effectiveness of the Bible and the church in dealing with life’s problems. All the while, Freud argued that belief in God was delusionary and therefore evil.
Psychotherapy, from its very beginning, created doubt about Christianity. Freud effectively eroded confidence in Christianity and established negative ideas concerning Christianity that prevail today. He negatively influenced the faith and affected the attitudes of many people concerning the role of the church in healing troubled souls.
Numerous psychoanalytic myths devised by Freud are imbedded in our culture. Many people believe them as if they are facts. The following statements are Freudian myths:
1. The id, ego, and superego are actual parts of the human psyche.
2. A person’s unconscious drives behavior more than his conscious mind chooses behavior.
3. Dreams are keys to understanding the unconscious and thus the person.
More myths:
4. Present behavior is determined by unresolved conflicts from childhood.
5. Many people are in denial because they have repressed unpleasant memories into the unconscious.
6. Parents are to blame for most people’s problems.
7. People need insight into their past to make significant changes in thoughts, attitudes and actions.
8. Children must successfully pass through their "psychosexual stages" of development or they will suffer from neurosis later on.
9. If I am to experience significant change, I must remember and re-experience painful incidents in my past.
10. The first five years of life determine what a person will be like when he grows up.
11. Everything that has ever happened to me is located in my unconscious mind.
12. People use unconscious defense mechanisms to cope with life.
Many of these Freudian myths permeate the thinking of numerous Christians and "Christian psychologists."
(From PALV3N6)

10 Fascinating Facts About Personality

Personality makes us who we are. It influences nearly every aspect of our lives, from what we choose to do for a living to how we interact with our families to our choices of friends and romantic partners. But what factors influence our personality? Can we change our personalities, or do our overall traits remain constant throughout life?

Learn more about what researchers have learned in these ten fascinating facts about personality.

1. Birth Order Can Influence Your Personality

Photo by Horton Group

You've probably heard of this concept before. First born children are often described as "bossy" or "responsible," while last-born children are sometimes described as "irresponsible" and "impulsive." But how true are these common stereotypes?
For decades, pop psychology books touted the effects of birth order on personality, but hard evidence on the phenomenon remained elusive until recently. A few recent empirical studies have found that such things as birth order and family size may indeed have an impact on personality. One study even found that birth order can influence your choices of friends and romantic partners; first-borns tend to associate with other first-borns, middle-borns with other middle-borns and last-borns with last-borns.

2. Your Personality Is Relatively Stable throughout Life

Photo by Sharon Dominick / iStockPhoto

In long-term studies of personality, some of the most core parts of personality remain stable throughout life. Three aspects that do tend to change as we age are anxiety levels, friendliness and eagerness for novel experiences.
According to researcher Paul T. Costa Jr., there is no evidence our overall personalities change as we grow older. "What changes as you go through life are your roles and the issues that matter most to you. People may think their personality has changed as they age, but it is their habits that change, their vigor and health, their responsibilities and circumstances - not their basic personality," he suggested in a New York Times article.

3. Personality Traits Are Linked to Certain Illnesses

Photo by Andy Nowack / iStockPhoto

In the past, a number of different personality traits have been suspected of contributing to particular illnesses. For example, hostility and aggression were often linked to heart disease. The difficulty was that while some studies would reveal a link, other studies demonstrated no such connection.
Recently, researchers have used a statistical technique known as meta-analysis to reevaluate previous research on the connection between personality and disease. What they discovered were some previously unnoticed connections between neurotic personality traits and five illnesses; headaches, asthma, arthritis, peptic ulcers and heart disease.
Another study suggested that shyness might be linked to a shorter lifespan.

4. Animals Have Distinctive Personalities

Photo by Karin Schopke

Does it ever seem like your beloved pet has a personality that makes him utterly unique? Animal researchers have found animals from nearly every species of animal (from spiders to birds to elephants) have their own personalities with preferences, behaviors and quirks that persist throughout life.
While some critics suggest that this represents anthropomorphism, or ascribing human traits to animals, animal personality researchers have been able to identify consistent behavioral patterns that can be empirically measured and tested.

5. Current Research Suggests that there are Five Core Personality Traits

In the past, researchers have debated exactly how many personality traits exist. Early researchers such as Allport suggested that there were as many as 4,000 distinct personality traits, while others such as Raymond Cattell proposed that there were 16. Today, many personality researchers support the five-factor theory of personality, which describes five broad personality dimensions that compose human personality:

1. Extraversion
2. Agreeableness
3. Conscientiousness
4. Neuroticism
5. Openness

6. Personality Influences Personal Preferences

Photo by Sanja Gjenero

It may come as no shock to learn that your personality can have a profound effect on your personal preferences, but you just might be surprised by how far reaching these effects may be. From your choice of friends to your taste in music, your unique personality can influence nearly every choice you make in your daily life.
For example, while you might pride yourself on carefully considering the issues before choosing a candidate to support, research suggests that personality may play a strong role in political preferences. One study conducted by researchers at the University of Toronto found that individuals who identified themselves as conservatives were higher in a personality trait called orderliness, while those who self-identified as liberal were higher in empathy.
Researchers suggest that these underlying personality needs to either preserve order or express empathy can have a strong influence on political preferences.

7. People Can Accurately Judge Your Personality Based on Your Facebook Profile

Screenshot

When you think about people's online identities, you might imagine that most people try to present an idealized version of their real selves. After all, in most online situations you get to pick and choose the information you want to reveal. You get to select the most attractive photos of yourself to post and you can edit and revise your comments before you make them. Surprisingly, one study discovered that Facebook profiles are actually quite good at conveying your real personality.
In the study, researchers looked at the online profiles of 236 U.S. college-aged individuals. The participants also filled out questionnaires designed to measure personality traits including extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism and openness. Observers then rated the personalities of the participants based on the online profiles, and these observations were compared to the results of the personality questionnaires. The researchers found that observers were able to get an accurate read on a person's personality based on their Facebook profile.
"I think that being able to express personality accurately contributes to the popularity of online social networks in two ways," explained psychologist and lead author Sam Gosling. "First, it allows profile owners to let others know who they are and, in doing so, satisfies a basic need to be known by others. Second, it means that profile viewers feel they can trust the information they glean from online social network profiles, building their confidence in the system as a whole."

8. Numerous Factors Can Contribute to Personality Disorders

Photo by omgimages / iStockPhoto

An estimated 10 to 15% of adults in the United States experience symptoms of at least one personality disorder. Researchers have identified a number of factors that may contribute to the onset of different personality disorders such as obsessive-compulsive disorder and borderline-personality disorder.
These factors include:

• Genetics
• Relationships with peers
• High sensitivity
• Verbal abuse
• Childhood trauma.

9. Cardinal Traits Are Rare

Photo by Ferdinand Schmutzer, from the Wikimedia Commons

Psychologist Gordon Allport described cardinal traits as those that dominated an individual's life to the point where that person is known and often identified specifically by that trait. These traits are considered rare, however. In many cases, people become so known for these traits that their very names become synonymous with that type of personality. Consider the origins of these often-used terms: Freudian, Machiavellian, narcissism, Don Juan and Christ-like.
For most people, personality is instead composed of a mixture of central and secondary traits. Central traits are those that make up the core foundation of personality, while secondary traits are those related to preferences, attitudes and situational behaviors.

10. Your Pet May Reveal Information About Your Personality

Photo by TJ Nuckolls

Would you consider yourself more of a "dog person" or a "cat person"? According to one personality study, your answer to this question might actually reveal important information about your personality.
In a study of 4,500 people, researchers asked participants whether they considered themselves to be more dog people or cat people. These individuals also completed a personality survey that measured a number of broad traits including conscientiousness, openness, neuroticism and agreeableness.
The researchers discovered that people who identified themselves as dog people tended to be more extroverted and eager to please others, while those who described themselves as cat people tended to be more introverted and curious.
According to researcher Sam Gosling, a psychologist at the University of Texas-Austin, the results might have important implications in the field of pet therapy. By using personality screenings, therapists might be able to match people in need with animals that are best suited to their personality.
_{References
Angier, N. (2010). Even among animals: Leaders, followers and schmoozers. The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/06/science/06angi.html
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Gosling, S. D., Sandy, C. J., & Potter, J. (2010). Personalities of self-identified "dog people" and "cat people." Anthrozoös, 23, 213-222.
Hartshorne, J. K. (2010). How birth order affects your personality. Scientific American. http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=ruled-by-birth-order
Huff, C. (2004). When personality goes awry. Monitor on Psychology. http://apa.org/monitor/mar04/awry.aspx
Svoboda, E. (2004). Only the shy die young. Discover Magazine. http://discovermagazine.com/2004/apr/only-the-shy-die-young/
University of Toronto (2010, June 10). Personality predicts political preferences. ScienceDaily. http://www.sciencedaily.com¬ /releases/2010/06/100609111312.htm
University of Texas at Austin (2009, December 1). Facebook profiles capture true personality, according to new psychology research. ScienceDaily. http://www.sciencedaily.com¬ /releases/2009/12/091201111154.htm}

10 Psychology Tricks You Can Use To Influence People

Before we get started, it’s important to note that none of these methods fall under what we would term the dark arts of influencing people. Anything that might be harmful to someone in any way, especially to their self esteem, is not included here. These are ways to win friends and influence people using psychology without being a jerk or making someone feel bad.

10

Get Favors

Trick: Get someone to do a favor for you—also known as the Benjamin Franklin effect.
Legend has it that Benjamin Franklin once wanted to win over a man who didn’t like him. He asked the man to lend him a rare book and when the book was received he thanked him graciously. As a result, this the man who had never wanted to speak to him before, became good friends with Franklin. To quote Franklin: “He that has once done you a kindness will be more ready to do you another than he whom you yourself have obliged.”
Scientists decided to test this theory and found that those who were asked by the researcher for a personal favor rated the researcher much more favorably than the other groups did. It may seem counter-intuitive, but the theory is pretty sound. If someone does a favor for you, they are likely to rationalize that you must have been worth doing the favor for, and decide that therefore they must like you.

9

Aim High

Trick: Ask for way more than you want at first then scale it back later.
This trick is sometimes known as the door in the face approach. You start by throwing a really ridiculous request at someone—a request they will most likely reject. You then come back shortly thereafter and ask for something much less ridiculous—the thing you actually wanted in the first place. This trick may also sound counter-intuitive, but the idea behind it is that the person will feel bad for refusing your first request, even though it was unreasonable, so when you ask for something reasonable they will feel obliged to help out this time.
Scientists tested this principle and found that it worked extremely well as long as the same person asked for both the bigger and smaller favor, because the person feels obliged to help you the second time and not anyone else.

8

Names

Trick: Use a person’s name, or their title depending on the situation.
Dale Carnegie, the author of How to Win Friends and Influence People, believed that using someone’s name was incredibly important. He said that a person’s name is the sweetest sound in any language for that person. A name is the core part of our identity, and so hearing it validates our existence, which makes us much more inclined to feel positively about the person who validated us.
But using a title, or form of address can also have strong effects, according to the as if principle. The idea is that if you act like a certain type of person, you will become that person, it’s a bit like a self fulfilling prophecy. To use this to influence others, you can refer to them as what you want them to be, so they will start thinking of themselves this way. This can be as simple as calling an acquaintance you want to be closer to “friend,” or “mate” whenever you see them, or referring to someone you want to work for as “boss.” But be warned: this can come off as very corny.

7

Flattery

Trick: Flattery will actually get you everywhere.
This one may seem obvious at first, but there are some important caveats to it. For starters it’s important to note that if the flattery is not seen as sincere, it’s going to do more harm than good. But researchers have studied the motivations behind peoples reaction’s to flattery, and found some very important things.
To put it simply, they found that people tend to look for cognitive balance, trying to always keep their thoughts and feelings organized in a similar way. So if you flatter someone who has high self esteem, and it is seen as sincere, they will like you more, as you are validating how they feel about themselves. However, if you flatter someone who has low self esteem, there is a chance it could backfire and cause them to like you less, because it interferes with how they perceive themselves. That, of course, does not mean you should demean a person of low self-esteem!

6

Mirroring

Trick: Mirror their behavior.
Mirroring is also known as mimicry, and is something that some people do naturally. People with this skill are considered to be chameleons; they try to blend into their environment by copying other people’s behaviors, mannerisms and even speech patterns. However, this skill can also be used consciously, and is a great way to make you more likable.
Researchers studied mimicry, and found that those who had been mimicked were much more likely to act favorably toward the person who had copied them. Even more interesting was their second find that those who had someone mimic their behavior were actually nicer and more agreeable to others in general—even those not involved in the situation. It is likely that the reason why this works is that mirroring someone’s behavior makes them feel validated. While this validation is likely to be most positively associated with the person who validated them, they will feel greater self-esteem and thus be more confident, happier and well disposed towards others.

5

Use Tiredness

Trick: Ask for favors when someone is tired.
When someone is tired they are more susceptible to everything someone may say, whether it is a statement or a request. The reason for this is that when people are tired it isn’t just their physical body, their mental energy levels drop as well. When you ask a request of someone who is tired, you probably won’t get a definite response, but probably an “I’ll do it tomorrow,” because they don’t want to deal with decisions at the moment. The next day, they are likely to follow through because people tend to keep their word; it’s natural psychologically to want to follow through with something you said you would do.

4

Offer They Can’t Refuse

Trick: Start with a request they can’t refuse and work your way up.
This is a reverse of the door in the face technique. Instead of starting with a large request, you start with something really small. Once someone has committed to helping you, or agreeing to something, they are now more likely to agree to a bigger request. Scientists tested this phenomenon in regards to marketing.
They started by getting people to express support for the rain forests and the environment—which is a fairly simple request. Then they found that once they had gotten them to express their agreement to supporting the environment, they were much easier to convince when it came to buying products that supported rain forests and other such things. However, don’t start with one request and immediately assail them with another. Psychologists found it much more effective if you wait a day or two to make the second request.

3

Keep Quiet

Trick: Don’t correct people when they are wrong.
Carnegie also pointed out in his famous book that telling someone they are wrong is usually unnecessary and does the opposite of endearing them to you. There is actually a way to show disagreement and turn it into a polite conversation without telling someone they are wrong, which strikes to the core of their ego. This is called the Ransberger Pivot, invented by Ray Ransberger and Marshall Fritz. The idea behind it is pretty simple: instead of arguing, listen to what they have to say, and then seek to understand how they feel and why. Then you explain the common ground that you share with them, and use that as a starting point to explain your position. This makes them much more likely to listen to what you have to say, and allows you to correct them without them losing face.

2

Repeat Stuff Back

Trick: Paraphrase people and repeat back to them what they just said.
One of the most positive ways to influence others is to show them that you really understand how they feel, that you have real empathy for them. One of the most effective ways to do this is by paraphrasing what they say and repeating it back to them, also known as reflective listening. Studies have shown that when therapists used reflective listening, people were likely to disclose more emotion and have a much better therapeutic relationship with the therapist.
This easily transfers over to talking to your friends. If you listen to what they say, and rephrase it as a question to confirm that you understood it, they are going to be more comfortable talking with you. They are also going to have a better friendship with you and be more likely to listen to what you have to say, because you showed that you care about them.

1

Nod

Trick: Nod a lot while you talk, especially when leading up to asking for a favor.
Scientists have found that when people nod while listening to something, they are more likely to be in agreement with it. They also have discovered that when someone is nodding a lot in front of them, it is natural for them to do the same. This is understandable because humans are well known at mimicking behaviors, especially those that they consider to have positive connotations. So if you want to be extra convincing, nod regularly throughout the conversation. The person you are talking to will find it hard not to nod themselves, and they will start to feel agreeable toward what you are saying, without even knowing it.

Many people who study human beings focus on psychology, or the study of individual behavior and mental processes. Psychologists study brain functions, emotions, cognition, and the development of relationships between people. Psychology also involves the study of abnormal behavior among individuals, and can include the analysis of intelligence and personality.
In addition to the more common facets of psychology outlined above, the study of psychology has evolved to encompass more specific areas of focus. For instance, forensic psychology, psychological testing, and research psychology are increasingly popular subspecialties. Forensic psychology explores the relationship between individual human behavior and the criminal justice system. Forensic psychologists often work in prisons or juvenile detention centers to evaluate the mental health of people who are on trial for criminal behavior.

Research psychology and psychological testing both focus more on the analysis of data obtained through a face to face examination of a person. Psychological testing often involves the administration of personality tests and intelligence tests to screen for deficiencies or abnormalities in a person’s mental processes. Research psychology, on the other hand, involves the use of controlled experiments or existing data to identify patterns or tendencies that guide human behavior. Research psychologists are often employed by universities, research centers, or governmental organizations

Human Development and Psychology

Program Description

The Human Development and Psychology (HDP) Program is designed to introduce practitioners and future researchers to theory and research on child, adolescent, and adult development. The program seeks to enable students to reflect on the application of theory and research broadly to education and to specific issues such as cultural diversity, bilingualism, literacy development, academic achievement among high-risk populations, bullying and cruelty among adolescents, prevention of the consequences of risk in the lives of children and adolescents, brain processes in learning, and children's emotional, moral, civic and cognitive development. Students in the program examine empirical evidence about language development, cognitive development, social and moral development, and cultural differences.
The HDP Program seeks to bridge traditional divisions between academic disciplines and between basic and applied research. It enables students to draw on a wide range of courses and resources within HGSE and within the broader university in fields such as psychology, sociology, education policy and child advocacy. Students explore the sociocultural contexts in which development takes place, focusing either domestically or internationally.
The program is a two-semester course of study that aims to provide students with a broad introduction to the study of human development, while giving them room to focus on their particular interests. In consultation with their advisors, students select courses and activities that work together to meet their specific goals.
Courses in Human Development and Psychology cover a variety of topics, including:

• Culture and Social Development
• Mind, Brain, and Education
• Language and Literacy Development
• Assessment
• Prevention Science and Practice
• Research and Policy in Early-Childhood Education
• Development in Specific Age Periods
• Research Methods
• Cognitive Development
• Gender and Relationships
• Moral and Civic Development
• Development Across Cultures

Students may apply to the HDP general program or the HDP Child Advocacy strand. The CA strand is a directed course of study designed to enable students to apply the best thinking in child development to the challenges of child advocacy. It also has a specific focus on relevant interdisciplinary knowledge and skills of advocacy including change efforts on behalf of the individual or family, within educational settings or other service systems, and/or at the legislative or social policy levels. Students will learn about and have opportunities to engage in each of these areas, depending on their professional interests and career goals. The strand is grounded in the recognition of social and economic inequities, and the barriers that children, birth through age 18, face because of poverty, language or disabilities. This strand will be most appropriate for students who have employment, coursework, or internship experience related to children/youth that has led to their interest in child advocacy.

Read more: http://www.gse.harvard.edu/academics/masters/hdp/#ixzz2oNfHFgr5

The Many Facets of Psychology

Many people who study human beings focus on psychology, or the study of individual behavior and mental processes. Psychologists study brain functions, emotions, cognition, and the development of relationships between people. Psychology also involves the study of abnormal behavior among individuals, and can include the analysis of intelligence and personality.
In addition to the more common facets of psychology outlined above, the study of psychology has evolved to encompass more specific areas of focus. For instance, forensic psychology, psychological testing, and research psychology are increasingly popular subspecialties. Forensic psychology explores the relationship between individual human behavior and the criminal justice system. Forensic psychologists often work in prisons or juvenile detention centers to evaluate the mental health of people who are on trial for criminal behavior.

Research psychology and psychological testing both focus more on the analysis of data obtained through a face to face examination of a person. Psychological testing often involves the administration of personality tests and intelligence tests to screen for deficiencies or abnormalities in a person’s mental processes. Research psychology, on the other hand, involves the use of controlled experiments or existing data to identify patterns or tendencies that guide human behavior. Research psychologists are often employed by universities, research centers, or governmental organizations.

The Many Facets of Psychology

Many people who study human beings focus on psychology, or the study of individual behavior and mental processes. Psychologists study brain functions, emotions, cognition, and the development of relationships between people. Psychology also involves the study of abnormal behavior among individuals, and can include the analysis of intelligence and personality.
In addition to the more common facets of psychology outlined above, the study of psychology has evolved to encompass more specific areas of focus. For instance, forensic psychology, psychological testing, and research psychology are increasingly popular subspecialties. Forensic psychology explores the relationship between individual human behavior and the criminal justice system. Forensic psychologists often work in prisons or juvenile detention centers to evaluate the mental health of people who are on trial for criminal behavior.

Research psychology and psychological testing both focus more on the analysis of data obtained through a face to face examination of a person. Psychological testing often involves the administration of personality tests and intelligence tests to screen for deficiencies or abnormalities in a person’s mental processes. Research psychology, on the other hand, involves the use of controlled experiments or existing data to identify patterns or tendencies that guide human behavior. Research psychologists are often employed by universities, research centers, or governmental organizations.

Psychology is an academic and applied discipline that involves the scientific study of mental functions and behaviors.^[1][2] Psychology has the immediate goal of understanding individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases,^[3][4] and by many accounts it ultimately aims to benefit society.^[5][6] In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, orcognitive scientist. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior, while also exploring the physiologicaland neurobiological processes that underlie certain cognitive functions and behaviors.

Psychologists explore concepts such as perception, cognition, attention, emotion, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, personality, behavior, andinterpersonal relationships. Psychologists of diverse stripes also consider the unconscious mind.^[7] Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causaland correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. In addition, or in opposition, to employing empirical and deductive methods, some—especiallyclinical and counseling psychologists—at times rely upon symbolic interpretation and other inductive techniques. Psychology has been described as a "hub science",^[8] with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the social sciences, natural sciences, medicine, and the humanities, such as philosophy.

While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health problems, it is also directed towards understanding and solving problems in many different spheres of human activity. The majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical,counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a wide range of topics related to mental processes and behavior, and typically work in university psychology departments or teach in other academic settings (e.g., medical schools, hospitals). Some are employed in industrial and organizationalsettings, or in other areas^[9] such as human development and aging, sports, health, and the media, as well as in forensic investigation and other aspects of law.